1. SEWING

PRELIMINARIES

Position of Hands and Method of Working

While most children are very eager to sew something, they do not naturally hold a needle or a piece of work in a manner likely to produce the best result. The best result may be taken as the production of good work with the least possible expenditure of time and energy. The best method of working will usually be found to be also the most graceful. The teacher, therefore, must help the pupil from the beginning to form the habit of using needle and thimble properly.

The simplest stitch, i.e. tacking, should be chosen to begin with. The needle must be grasped between the first finger and thumb, the thimble (on the middle finger) must be placed to the eye of the needle, which is then urged on its way through the material by all three fingers. The thumb and first finger are slipped along (without any break in the motion) to the point of the needle, in order to draw it up and out, the thread meanwhile slipping between the second and third fingers, where it is held firmly and yet daintily. The needle, having now com­pleted an elliptical motion, is ready for the next stitch. Worked in this way, the making of a stitch becomes in time a continuous motion, making for speedy work. It takes a good deal of trouble to teach all this, and many reminders are necessary before the habit is fixed, but it is worth all the trouble for the sake of the pleasure in working which it brings. Children who have not been taught how to use their thimbles properly, generally make three separate, awk­ward, jerky motions at every stitch, which renders work slow and dreary.

The left hand also must learn its work in order that a stitch may be well made. Considering the small size of the pupil's hands, it is best to begin by holding the work over the first two fingers, holding it down with the thumb and the other two fingers. This position allows room for making a fair-sized stitch, while the last stitch is also visible as a guide so that the work may be regular. The wrist must be slightly bent so as to bring the line of work almost parallel with the worker's body.

These positions of right and left hand will, of course, have to be modified in the management of certain pieces of work, but tacking illustrates the most common way of working. The neces­sary motions and positions of the hands are often taught by means of drill lessons, which are based on a child's propensity to repeat words or actions over and over again, regardless of their useful­ness. But such lessons should be as short and as few as possible, and children who have learnt an action should not continue to drill with the others, for if a child has learned the delight of achieving some piece of work, it is disappointing (to say the least) to be in possession of needle, thread, and material, and yet to make no more progress than a horse on a treadmill. Perhaps drill lessons could be given in some way similar to action songs, in which the rhythmical performance of the action, rather than its result, is the main object.

Suitable Materials

Inchoosing materials for children's work, several considerations present themselves. The chief of these are cheapness, suitability, and variety. For early lessons, the material ought to be cheap, so that the pupil may not be hindered from making frequent experiments. A material of really good durable quality is not essential at first, as the child's first efforts cannot produce anything of permanent value. Later, however, when useful articles and garments are being made, the material should be very good of its kind, so that a girl may learn the qualities of good material and how to choose it, and may experience the pleasure of handling it.

The material first used should be open in texture and rather soft, so that the efforts of the small, weak hand to push the needle through in the correct manner may not meet with resistance. It is difficult for an experienced worker to realize the lack of muscular force in children's fingers, but to anyone watching a young class struggling with an ordinary piece of firm white cotton, the reason for bad management of the needle is obvious. Unbleached calico, of open texture and without dressing, is most suitable from every point of view; it is comparatively cheap, it is sufficiently coarse in texture, and its creamy tint is restful to the eye and an excellent background for the stitches worked upon it.

This material may be varied from time to time and gradually replaced by other kinds of cotton, soft colored cottons at first, and lastly white cotton. Cotton, being the cheapest, will be the commonest material used in school, but all other

Position of the hands in making a tacking- stitch. Needle held by thumb and first finger and guided by them Similar position for gather­ing-, stitching, and (with slight change of slope) for 6 hemming1 Position of the hands in top-sewing Similar position for buttonhole stitch Position of the hands in darning Working the up rows Position of the hands in darning Working the down rows
 
materials in common use, linen, flannel or other woolens, dress materials, and even silk, should occasionally be used by the pupils, so that they may learn to appreciate the varying qualities and uses of materials, and the advantage of different treatment for different stuffs. In buying some of these materials, of which only small pieces are required, more variety can be obtained if very short remnants are bought. Both teacher and pupils might also be able to contribute small pieces left over after cutting out—scraps which would otherwise be thrown away as rags. This would help to destroy the idea, too preva­lent in the child's mind, that school work is a thing quite different from home work. As a rule, it is well to avoid materials which have been very specially " prepared" for school work. The thread used for sewing must always be in accordance with the material used. At first the colour should form a complete contrast with the background, so that every stitch made is easily seen. This prevents eye-strain at an age when the eye demands careful treatment, and it also permits a pupil to judge for herself whether her work is well done, and to correct her own faults in regularity. Besides being colored, the thread should also be rather thick, for the first work will consist of rather large stitches worked on rather coarse material. If embroidery thread is used, everything will then be in correct pro­portion. Clark's Embroidery Cotton No. 18 is a very useful thread, made in a large variety of Beautiful colors which wash well. For decora­tive purposes it is suitable for all but the finest materials, and for these a finer thread, No. 30, is obtainable. Any thread heavier than No. 18 is apt to give little pupils too much trouble in needle-threading.

For later work a variety of threads should be available, all used in proportion to the fineness of the material and the stitch required, for the pupil should learn by practice that fine work on coarse stuff and coarse work on fine material are equally contrary to good taste in needlework.

For the finest white work likely to be under­taken in the elementary school, nothing finer than No. 60 white cotton thread is required, and the use of such thread will only be attained to by degrees. Appropriateness being the charac­teristic of all good work, a girl must learn to select suitable thread to sew various materials with: for example, silk thread would be used to sew silk, or to decorate valuable materials as silk, or woolens and linens of good quality; wool may be used to mend woolens and to decorate substantial woolens and sometimes linens; flax thread is best used on linen only, and cottons of every kind are most suitably sewn with cotton threads.

Needles must be chosen to suit the various threads and materials used. A needle is suit­able in size if it takes the thread through the material smoothly, yet without allowing it to slip too easily out of the needle's eye. Because of the smallness of the child's hand, it is best to choose for most purposes short needles (known as betweens). Their length enables the pupil to grasp the needle correctly without too much strain. No. 6 is suitable for No. 40 thread, and No. 8 for No. 60 thread. For early lessons, however, the usual between needle is a little too fine for embroidery thread. A short embroidery needle is a little longer than a between needle, but has an easily-threaded eye. A suitable needle, short and with a clear eye, is the New County needle, No. 3 and No. 5. It is produced specially for children's use by W. and R. Holmes, Glasgow. When a good deal of rapid tacking has to be done, long needles (sharps) are preferable to betweens, and long needles are also required for darning. Darners No. 2 to No. 4 are suitable for woolen darning, and No. 5 to No. 7 sharps for linen darning.

Order of Work

The order in which the various stitches and processes in needlework will be taught is decided by two circumstances. First, the pupil must begin with what is easiest and proceed gradually to more difficult work, and secondly, a new kind of work should only be taught when its use is required for the construction of some article. This second consideration may tend to the omission of exercises which the teacher considers useful in themselves, and excellent as giving practice in the management of material, but not necessary in the construction of the things commonly made in school. In such a case, the teacher would introduce an extra small article involving the desired operations. For example, the making of a kettle- or iron-holder gives opportunity for learning how to bind edges, and how to sew on a loop for hanging.

In order that pupils may learn to think about and plan their work, as much freedom of choice as possible should be permitted them. Other­wise, children tend to become machines worked by the teacher. Pupils should learn to choose colors of thread to work with, patterns to work out in the decoration of a garment, and methods of construction. How far a pupil is able to make good use of freedom depends on her environment and her experience. If from lack of training, lack of observation, or lack of beauty in her surroundings, she has apparently no appreciation of what is well and beautifully done, it will be necessary for the teacher to suggest more and to explain more fully the things to be admired and imitated in any piece of work.

In teaching methods of working, let the method chosen be as simple and direct as possible, accommodated as far as necessary to the child's immature powers, but yet based on some good principle of work. Then the pupil will not have to unlearn things taught at school when she goes to work in the world. Pupils should have a good supply at hand of all

There are many correct ways of working, but the methods indicated in the following chapters have been chosen as suitable for young learners, since they make for thorough work, while avoiding all unnecessary intricacies. An experienced worker readily invents for herself ways of improving small details of her work.

STITCHES USED IN Stitches used in In the following pages the stitches are grouped according to their similarity, but the probable order in which they would be taught is:
(i) Tacking; (2) top-sewing; (3) hemming; (4) running; (5) herring-boning; (6) darning; (7) blanket stitching; (8) chain stitching; (9) gather­ing; (10) setting in; (11) stitching; (12) button­hole stitching; (13) feather stitching, outline stitching, and varieties of chain stitching; (14) couching, knotting, and hem stitching.

The order would depend on (1) the simplicity of and (2) the necessity for the stitch.

In teaching stitches, the following points need to be emphasized:

1. The particular value or use of the stitch in question.
2. The exact form of the stitch, and the best position of the hands and the work to obtain a good result.
3. The relation of the stitch to those already known.
4. What to do with ends of thread in order to obtain neatness and security.

Tacking

1. It is the simplest and most natural stitch for children to work, offering no difficulties other than the management of the work and the needle.

2. Beginnings and endings may be fixed at first by one or more back stitches, a short end of thread being left to give more security (fig. 1).
3. At a later stage, when greater neatness and firmness are required, the needle should be slipped between the folds and a few top-sewing stitches taken over the edge of the hem before beginning. To finish off the hem, make a few top-sewing stitches, slip the needle between the folds and bring it out a little distance away. Cut off the thread (fig. 2).
4. Worked with various colored threads, tacking forms a very valuable decorative stitch, giving excellent practice in the use of form and colour in needlework.
5. Less fine tacking is used to fix work pre­liminary to the application of other stitches.

Running

1. Running is merely tacking worked in small stitches.
2. When running is used for seams or tucks, the joinings should be made very secure by running the new thread over the last few stitches made with the old thread. This prevents a gap (fig- 3)- *n the illustration the overlapping stitches are shown in heavy line.

3. In working seams and tucks, running is done on the under side, so that beginnings, joinings, and endings can be made without turn­ing the work.
Twisted Running

This is a very simple and quickly worked decorative stitch. Work a row of running, then pass the needle and thread under each stitch without catching the material (figs. 4 and 5).

Gathering

i. This is a form of running stitch, used to bring together the fullness of a garment, pre­paratory to stroking and setting in.

2. Pass over about twice the amount of material lifted on the needle (fig. 6).
3. Gather on the right side, and usually on single material.
4. Use a strong thread, and make the begin­ ning of the thread very strong, thus: Make a small stitch, then another in the same place, slip the needle through the second stitch before tightening it, then make a third stitch over the same place.

 Darning

1. Darning is a method of strengthening or thickening material (fig. 7).
2. The stitch is similar to running in appear­ ance, but differs in the method of working as follows:

1. Worked usually on single material.
2. Worked in a continuous series of rows.
3. Worked vertically.
4. Stitch in one row always opposite space in the next.
5. Several stitches taken on the needle at one time. (/) Beginnings, joinings, and endings not made secure but left quite free. " 3. Begin at the left-hand side, working up­wards.

4. At ends of rows, the thread should be left loose, to prevent dragging the material, and, in the case of woollen thread, to allow for the shrinkage of the darning thread.
5.The work must always be well stretched over the left hand to prevent dragging. In working upwards, the needle is held lightly over the fingers, and kept in position by the thumb, while in working downwards, the ordinary method of holding is used.
6.Darning is much used in embroidery for filling in spaces or forming a background.

Stitching

1. This is a very strong stitch when well made (fig. 8).

2. In order to prevent the needle piercing and weakening the thread, let the needle take a very slight slope by inserting it always immediately above (or below) the end of the last-formed stitch. This forms a neat cord on the wrong side, and makes the stitch more regular on both sides (fig- 9).
3. Begin and end threads by running in on the wrong side, into the stitches on single material, into the cloth when it is double.

4. Stitching is a very good stitch for fine out­lining in embroidery.

Crewel, Outline, or Stem Stitch

1. This stitch has the same appearance as the wrong side of stitching, the wrong side of stem stitch (when well worked) being like the right side of stitching.
2. The needle is inserted a little way to the right, and brought out towards the left, just at the end of the previously made stitch.
3. Stem stitch produces a heavier outline than stitching (fig. 10).

Top-sewing

1. This is a simple way of joining finished edges.
2. In making a stitch, keep the needle perpen­ dicular to the work by bending the right wrist (fig. 11).

3. Hold the work in the left hand along the first finger.
4. Beginnings and joinings are made secure by leaving a short end on the surface of the work and sewing it down.
5. End off by sewing back a few stitches (fig. 12). If the top-sewing finishes at the place where it began, as in sewing on a patch, finish by sewing over again the first few stitches made, before slippingthe needle between the folds.
6. When top-sewing is the only stitch used in a seam, stitches may be repeated at joins for greater security.

7. When it is important that a seam should be pressed flat, top-sewing must take a very small hold of the cloth.
8. Top-sewing usually looks best on the right side of the work, but sometimes (as in joining two selvedges, e.g. to gore a nightdress) it looks flatter if worked on the wrong side.
9. Top-sewing is usually worked from left to right when used for overcasting in dressmaking.

Hemming

1. Compared with tacking, a single row of hemming gives more strength and flatness to an edge, but hemming does not admit of such decorative effect.
2. The stitch should look the same on both sides of the work, and should not be too upright (fig- 13)-

3. The direction of the slope is the opposite to that of top-sewing.
4. In good hemming, beginnings and joinings are not noticeable on either right or wrong sides.
5. The beginning is made by slipping the needle through the hem only and tucking the end of the thread beneath the hem.
6. At a join, the last stitch made .is half unpicked, so that the end of the thread appears between the hem and the garment; the needle with the new thread is inserted where the old stitch was unpicked and both short ends tucked under the hem (fig. 14).

7. Hemming is usually employed for neatening rather than for joining, and therefore does not require so strong a join as top-sewing. If it is ever used to hold two pieces together, joins may be made strong by working with the new thread over the last few stitches.
8. Hemming is finished off by repeating the last stitch, and then slipping the needle between the folds for an inch or so before cutting off the thread (fig. 15).

If, however, the hemming ends at the same place where it began, as in hemming round a skirt, a neater finish can be made by sewing over the first few stitches made, and then slipping the needle between the folds.

9. Hemming is usually worked on the wrong side, but is applicable to either side of the work.
10. In some kinds of advanced work, notably in dressmaking, the stitch is not equal on both sides of the work, but appears long on the wrong side, and almost invisible on the right side.

Setting-in Stitch

1. This is a form of hemming stitch, used to sew gathers into a band or other section of a garment.
2. Its shape varies according to the amount of fullness in the gathers. It may be a vertical stitch if the gathers are very close (fig. 16).
3. Pass the needle through one tiny pleat or gather horizontally, and then, without drawing the thread through, insert the needle almost vertically through the edge of the band (fig. 17).

stretched over the fingers (as in blanket stitch­ing)-

2. Begin the thread as for hemming.
3. Lift a few threads of the material, bringing the needle out over the sewing-thread, which is held down by the thumb as in blanket stitch­ing.
4. Take a vertical stitch into the hem (fig. 19).

Note.—As the loose threads are more firmly stretched over the left hand, this method is likely to produce a smoother result.

Herring-boning

1. This is a large stitch used for keeping flat a single fold of springy material, such as flannel.
2. It consists of a double row of tacking stitches worked from left to right, alternately above and below the raw edge (fig. 20).

3. The lower row of stitches should come immediately beneath the fold.
4. The beginnings, joinings, and endings are done in much the same way as in hemming; but, if the material is very springy, extra strength may be given by making a back stitch to fix the beginning of each new thread.
5. On very narrow hems, or where there is no hem, a very symmetrical corner may be worked in herring-boning (fig. 20). On wide hems, se­curity is more important than symmetry (fig. 21).
6. Herring-boning lends itself very well to decorative treatment.

Blanket or Loop Stitch

1. This stitch is worked over a raw edge, to keep it from fraying, while avoiding folds.
2. When it is too difficult to work directly upon the raw edge, a line may be traced, over which the stitches are worked, the border of material being afterwards carefully cut away.
3. The work is held with the raw edge towards the worker, and the needle is brought down­ wards under the raw edge or the traced line, and over the thread which is held down by the thumb, thus forming a twist which covers the raw edge of material (fig. 22).
4. In beginning, run the thread a short way through the cloth, and, in joining, always catch the new thread through the last loop formed. In ending off, insert the needle just below the twist before running into the material (fig. 23).
5. Always make a diagonal stitch on turning a sharp corner.
6. The stitch may be worked close or open, of various lengths, and in a continuous line or in groups.

 Buttonhole Stitch

1. This stitch differs from blanket stitch in having a firmer knot. It is therefore a better stitch for buttonholes (fig. 24).
2. It is worked from the raw edge, while blanket stitch is worked towards it.
3. The work is held almost as for top-sewing. In blanket stitch, the thread from the previous stitch passes under the needle point; while in buttonholing it is the thread from the needle's eye which is brought under the needle.

4. In joining, slacken the last knot, draw the new thread through it in the same direction as before, tighten the knot again, andlay both short ends along the raw edge to be sewn down (fig. 25).

Feather Stitching

1. The method of working is similar to those of blanket and chain stitches, but the stitches are worked first to right then to leftof an imaginary vertical line (fig. 26).
2. This stitch admits of many varieties of pattern (fig. 27).

3. In finishing a thread, catch down the last stitch formed, and in beginning a new thread, bring the needle out through the last loop (fig. 27).
4. All ends of threads are run in on the wrong side. Fig. 27 indicates the direction of the run- in ends.

 Chain Stitching

1. The method of working is similar to that of blanket stitch, but the line of stitches is formed vertically, instead of from left to right (fig. 28).

2. Insert the needle in the loop made, bringing out the needle downwards over the thread.
3. In finishing a thread, catch down the last loop formed, and, in joining, bring the new thread through that loop.
4. Finish ends by running in the thread on the wrong side.

 Snail-trail Stitch

1. This is a variety of chain stitch in which the needle is inserted a little in advance of the last stitch formed, and is brought through the material at a sharp angle to the line of work. It then conies out over the thread held down by the left thumb (fig. 29).

2. This stitch is very light and quicklyworked.

Twisted-chain Stitch

The method of making this stitch is almost identical with the last, but the needle is inserted close to the previous stitch, and brought out at a very slight angle to the line of work (fig- 3O).

Cable-chain Stitch

1. This is another variety of chain stitch.
2. Make a chain stitch to begin with, then slip the needle under the thread (not through the material), and, keeping this twist of thread on the needle, insert it for the next chain stitch a little way in advance of the previous chain stitch. Before drawing the needle through, pull the working-thread firmly down (fig. 31).

3. An effective variation of the stitch may be made by working a short tacking stitch into each chain stitch, using a contrasting color of thread.

Couching

1. This is a very simply worked and effective outline stitch, often used to hold down edges in appliqu6 work.
2. Lay two or three threads along the line of work, having previously drawn through and fixed their short ends on the wrong side.

Take a single thread (which may be of a contrasting color) in the needle, fix it on the wrong side, draw through to the right side, and sew down the line of threads at short intervals (fig- 32).

4. On reaching the end, fix the sewing-thread on the wrong side, draw through the other threads one by one, and finish them off also.
5. A single heavy thread or a cord may be couched with a thinner thread.

 Knotting

1. There are several ways of making French knots, according to the size of knot desired and the quality of thread used.
2. A simple way is to slip the needle under the thread, then insert it in the material close by where it came out, and bring it out where the next knot is required (fig. 33).

3. A rather larger knot is made by taking a small stitch on the needle, and then passing it through a twist of the thread held by the left thumb. The needle is drawn through until the knot is formed, then inserted close to the newly made knot, and brought out in position for the next one (fig. 34).
4. Knots are used for holding down hems where lightness is required more than strength, and are also grouped as a filling for any given space.

Satin Stitch

Satin stitch consists of rows of tacking stitch, placed below each other very closely and regu­larly, so that when the work is finished it will have a perfectly smooth and satiny surface. It is one of the simplest and most useful Fig. 35 stitches in  embroidery, requiring only care in working to produce a beautiful effect (fig- 35).

Eyelet Embroidery, or Broderie Anglaise.

1. This is the simplest form of cut embroidery, the stitch used being top-sewing worked very closely.
2. The pattern consists of circles and ovals grouped together to form a design, and united by stem lines.
3. When the pattern has been traced on the material, one of the circles or ovals should be run round, the embroidery thread being used.

4. Then, without cutting the thread, two cuts at right angles should be made across the circle or oval, and the little flaps of material folded back. Very small circles may be only pierced, not cut. If the circles or ovals are very large, more than two cuts should be made across them, else they are apt to drag out of shape (fig. 36).
5. The top-sewing is then worked closely round over the edge of this fold until the be­ ginning is reached, when the thread must be fastened off smoothly on the wrong side. No loose threads should be carried from point to point of the pattern, but if a stem begins at a convenient point, the thread, instead of being fastened off on the completion of a circle, may be continued along the stem.
6. Any little flaps of material remaining on the wrong side should be neatly pared away with embroidery scissors.
7. With this work, the most suitable stitch for working the stems is a very short stitch worked closely like satin stitch at right angles to the line of the stem.

Machine Sewing

If well done, machine stitching is strong, quick, and satisfactory, although it is apt to lack the daintiness, softness, and individuality of hand­work. It is particularly suitable for seams, hems, tucks, and all invisible joinings, but there are pieces of work where machine stitching detracts from the beauty of the finished work. For example, if gathers can be stroked, they should be set in by hand: machine stitching prevents the proper regulation of the gathers. A row of machine stitching close by a row of hand sewing will usually prevent either from showing to good effect.

Machine work can be more quickly and more regularly done if a treadle machine is used. A hand attachment is very useful, however, for little girls, who can later on learn to use the treadle.

The chief difficulties girls find in learning to machine (apart from the things which can be learned by consulting the book of directions sup­plied with every machine) are to work steadily, without letting the driving-wheel turn in the wrong direction, and to guide the work evenly.

Practice may be given first with no thread in the machine. Strips of paper may be used for practice in guiding the work. The pricking of the paper by the needle shows how far success has been attained.

As soon as some ability in working is shown, a pupil should work on something real, but at first things of little importance should be at­tempted, e.g. hems of kitchen towels or dusters, doll's clothes, &c.

As in hand sewing, beginnings, joinings, and endings require special care, so that they may be strong but invisible. The machine needle should be at its highest position when work is being placed or removed, but at its lowest when work is being turned in the machine. At a join­ing, a few stitches should be worked exactly over the last few made, and the beginnings and end­ings may be strengthened by turning the work round and sewing a few stitches in the opposite direction over the line of sewing. All loose ends of thread must be disposed of. A quick and common, but not very neat plan, is to tie the ends together on the wrong side and cut off short. It is better to thread each end into a needle and run it into the material. The line of machine stitch­ing should lie close to the edge of the hem or seam being worked.

Apart from the actual sewing, girls must learn to place and thread the needle and the shuttle, to vary the tensions and the length of stitch, and to dust and oil the machine when necessary.

THE TREATMENT OF EDGES

Fringing

Whilepupils are making their very first attempts at sewing, fringing is a good way of finishing an edge, because (1) it allows the pupil to begin sewing right away, unhindered by the preliminary task of folding a hem, a delay which may cause enthusiasm to evaporate; (2) it makes sure that progress is not hindered by the difficulty of pushing the needle through the folded material; (3) it helps the pupil to become acquainted with the material and with the manner in which selvedge and weft threads are woven to form cloth.

Hem Folding

1. Make first a small, and then a deeper fold, pressing well down without pulling out of shape.

2.Pin down, then tack through both folds.

In laying hems all round a piece of ma­terial, lay first the whole of the selvedge-way hems before beginning to lay the weft-way hems (fig. 1).

4. In laying a deep hem on a curved edge, pleats must be made in order to get rid of the fullness. A number of tiny pleats will preserve the correct shape of the hem better than one large one (fig. 2).
5. It is sometimes better to lay the deep fold first, and baste it near the folded edge; then measure the depth of hem with a short cardboard measure, marking with pins (fig. 2); lastly fold in the remaining material and baste again.
6. A single fold only is required when a hem is to be herring-boned.

Note.—A very little preliminary practice in folding and tacking hems on paper is advantageous. The pupil learns how to fold evenly, and how to press folds flat. In work­ing with cloth, the young pupil can only exert sufficient force by laying the work on the table and pressing it down­wards. As far as possible, however, the daintier method of holding the work up and pressing between the fingers should be encouraged. Pins must be freely used.

False hems are pieces of cloth joined on to the original material to form a hem either (1) to eke out the length or width of the material, (2) to obtain a flatter appearance than an ordinary hem would allow, or (3) to decorate a garment by the addition of material of different colour. False hems may be cut from material along the straight thread, or on the crossway, and, accord­ing to their purpose, may be placed on the right side or on the wrong side of the garment.

A. Straight False Hem—

i. Cut the cloth for a false hem in the same direction as the material to be trimmed.

2. Run the false hem to the raw edge of the material, having first folded in the short ends to the proper size, if the edges of the garment are already neatened (fig. 4).

3. Flatten out the seam thoroughly, pressing the turnings in the direction of the garment if the false hem is for the right side, but away from the garment if the hem is for the wrong side (figs. 3 and 4).
4. See that the seam does not appear on the right side, then tack the edge.
5. Lay a fold on the free edge of the false hem, and pin and tack down smoothly (fig. 5).

6. Fix the hem with hemming, machine stitch­ing, or decorative stitching.
7. Finish the short edges of the hem, if necessary, by top-sewing or some other stitch.

B. Crossway False Hem— This is used on a curved edge because the crossway of material stretches.

1. Find the crossway by folding an edge of material at right angles to itself, i.e. with the selvedge threads lying on the weft ones. Cut along the fold.
2. Fold and cut as many strips as required, parallel to the first fold made (fig. 6).

3. Measure the width of pieces on the cross (not along the threads), and allow larger turnings than if the strips were cut along the thread.
4. Cut all ends to be joined by the selvedge thread.

5. Join the strips, selvedge to selvedge, by a single seam, so as to form one straight piece fig. 7). Spread the seams open (fig. 8).
6.    Join the false hem to the. sary to stretch the false hem a little in attaching it to a convex curve, or to ease it slightly when it is being joined to a concave curve.

7. In cutting crossway strips from a material with a diagonal cord, cut the pieces in the opposite direction to the cord.

Notes.—Cutting and joining crossway pieces is quite a mathematical exercise, dealing with lines and angles, and as such may be practised first on paper; but paper does not stretch at all, and so does not show the value of the cross-way cut.

In giving a first lesson on cutting cloth on the cross, it is best to use striped material, which shows clearly the sel­vedge, weft, and crossway, and brings out the advantage of the selvedge-way joins.

In folding on the cross, it is advisable to crease the ma­terial by pressing downwards on the table, as premature stretching- ruins the
value of the false hem.

However careful the worker, a slight error in folding is apt to creep in when many strips have to be cut from one piece. A good way to reduce this error is to measure off the strips not singly, but in groups (say four at a time), e.g. if 1" strips are required, cut off a width of 4", then fold and cut this piece into four.

It may be helpful to the pupils to compare a straight strip, torn selvedge-way, with a piece of tape, and a cross-way strip with a piece of braid.

Piping

1. Piping means a tiny border of material, usually of contrasting color, projecting beyond the edge of a garment.
2. Crossway strips are best used for this purpose.

If the garment is lined, the crossway strip is doubled, and stitched between the garment and the lining so that its folded edge shows narrowly on the right side. (fig. 10).

4. If the garment is unlined, the piping is made to serve the purpose of a false hem as well as of a decorative border. It is folded
   unequally, and when the folded edge has been attached to the garment, the free edge is turned in and hemmed down on the wrong side (fig. 9).

Sometimes the piping encloses a cord, which is stitched firmly between the folds of the piping before it is attached to the garment (fig. 10). In this case the piping is usually of the same ma­terial as the garment.

Scalloping

1. Scalloping forms a very popular edging to garments, especially  underclothing, or to household linen. Since no folds are made, it may give a flatter edge than a hem, but, for the same reason, it is less durable.
2. The pattern must first be traced on the material. This may be done by means of a transfer paper and a hot iron. But transfer papers are marked in straight lines of pattern, and require very careful handling and much snipping in order to make successful work on curved lines.
3. A better plan is to draw the pattern very carefully on paper, then pin it in place on the material with a sheet of carbon paper between, and trace the pattern over with a sharp-pointed pencil or blunt knitting-needle. As a rule, the whole of the scalloping need not be drawn out on paper. A number of scallops may be used, the pattern being moved along from stage to stage. If a difficult line has to be followed, mark it out first by tacking stitches.
4. The scallops should now be outlined with running stitches, and, if raised work is desired, should also be filled in lightly with running or very loosely worked chain stitches (fig. 11). This work may be done with a softer thread than that used for sewing the scallops.
5. Blanket stitch is now worked very closely over the pattern, the joinings of threads being very carefully made so as to avoid gaps and weak spots
6. Where the scallops join, the stitches will become shorter as they reach the sharp point.
7. Lastly, the raw edge of material must be cut away by means of a small sharp pair of scissors. To do this successfully, hold the
   work with the scalloped edge upwards, and cut away the material closely behind the twist of the blanket stitch.

 Binding an Edge

1. Binding is used to neaten an edge which is too clumsy to turn in,
but which cannot con­veniently be blanket stitched — e. g. double or threefold material should be bound.
2. Binding may con­sist of strips (preferably crossway) cut from material, but it is easier to get a good effect by using ribbon, tape, braid, or Paris binding. Crossway strips are used for binding armhole edges and other curved lines.
3. The binding may be folded exactly in two, laid over the edge, and machine stitched.
4. For hand work, it is better to fold so that one-third of the depth lies on the right side and two-thirds on the wrong side (fig. 12).

5. Hemdown the right side; hem or run on the wrong side.
6. Fold diagonally at the corners, and hem the diagonal folds, both on right and wrong sides (fig. 13).

7. If a join in the binding is necessary, it may be made simply by folding in the end and over­ lapping the raw edge
of the other end. This fold should be hemmed down.
8.    A neat join can be made at the corner where the diagonal fold occurs. This re­quires careful handling. A good piece of binding must be left free at the begin­ning, and it must gradually be folded and cut to the proper size to allow it to cover the raw edge of the other end of the binding.
9. If the material is single, and not too thick, the binding may be placed flat on the wrong side, over a fold turned in once. The binding may be stitched, run, or hemmed down (fig. 14).

Note.—This is a rather difficult lesson, and for the first attempt the best result will be got by binding a piece of linen or other firm material with ribbon. Tape does not keep the fold well, and Paris binding is too stiff.

The material must be placed right up to the fold of the binding, without, however, being allowed to fold over. While the right side of the binding is being worked, the wrong side should be free, so as not to be caught down by the right-side stitches.

The most difficult part is the folding at the corner. The diagonal fold should extend from the edge of the binding only to the crease of fold. Fig. 12 shows the creases that will be made on the binding by correct folding. This fold­ing might be practised first on a strip of paper, which is more easily manipulated than other materials.

Attaching a False Hem or Decorative Band to a Square-necked Garment

1. The band of material may be cut straight oron the cross, and  should be joined into one sufficiently long piece before it is put on.
2. The edges of the garment should be turned down once either to the right side or to the wrong side, the corners being snipped to make them lie flat. If the material is at all difficult, this fold should be tacked.
3. The band should be turned in singly along both its long edges and the folds tacked down.
4. It is then laid against the garment to cover the raw edges, so that the folded edges just coin­ cide. At the corners the band is folded diagon ally (fig. 15).
5. When all the band has been placed and pinned in position, it should be tacked at the outer edge, the ends of the band being folded in to match the edge of the garment.
6. Before the lower edge of the band is tacked down, the unnecessary material folded in at each corner may be carefully cut away, leaving sufficient turnings for security.
7. The band may be sewn down by rows of decorative stitching or machine stitching ateach edge of the band, the diagonal corners being secured neatly by hemming.

SEAMS

In teaching pupils to make seams, the stitch most commonly used for joining (apart from machine stitching) is running. An occasional back stitch, say at every sixth stitch, is very useful in strengthening the seam and in prevent­ing it from dragging. Stitching is only used if great firmness is required and if machine stitch­ing is not possible.

The most important thing to teach about seams is the necessity for flattening out the seam thoroughly after the first row of sewing has been done. This is best done by spreading out the seam and drawing the finger-nail or the end of the thimble along it firmly.

In children's work, plenty of preliminary pin­ning and tacking is taken for granted, although not always mentioned.

Single Seam

1. This is the simplest and flattestof all seams.
2. The two right sides having been placed together, edge to edge, a line of running or stitching is worked at a sufficient distance from the edge to .give security.
3. . The edges are then separated, and the seam flattened out well (fig. 1).
4. This seam is commonly used in dressmaking. If the two edges are not selvedges, they are overcast. In other work this seam is only used where it will finally be covered, as, for ex­ample, in joining crossway pieces for a false hem, or in joining shoulder seams for a double yoke.

French Seam

1. This is a very useful seam for pinafores, blouses, &c, as no sewing appears on the right side. It is not suitable for  hick materials, as too many folds are made.
2. Place the two pieces of material together, right sides out.

2. Place the tape along one side of the open­ing, and continue beyond it a short way. Pin and tack (fig. 11). and putting several strengthening stitches at the weak corner.

6. Slip the needle through to the wrong side and hem all round the tape, making diagonal stitches at the corners.

1. On reaching the point where the tape over­ laps itself, slip the needle along, and hem the tape to the tape only (fig. 12).
2. Finish firmly at the point where the sewing began.

Note.—In sewing on tapes and other small pieces of work, it is best to arrange the working so as to avoid having to break off the thread and begin again.

Strengthening Tape for the Corner of a Sheet or Table-cloth

1. Make a small fold on the end of the tape, place it along the edge of the article and tack it.
2. Fold the tape diagonally at the corner, and tack it along the next side to an equal distance with the first. Fold in the end.

3. Top-sew the outer edges, and hem all the other edges, including the diagonal fold (fig. 13)

METHODS OF REDUCING THE WIDTH OF A GARMENT

Making a Band

Bands are often required to confine the full­ness of a garment, and are therefore made of double material, and cut selvedge way.
A. Simple method for elementary work.—

1. Fold in all the edges once, weft way first,
   then selvedge way.
2. Fold the band lengthwise (fig. 1). Tack.
3. Top-sew the ends.

1. Pleats must not overlap each other (fig. 3).
2. Measure the amount of fullness to be got rid of, and decide the number of pleats to be made. Since each pleat lifts material equal to twice its width, the size of pleat required will

B. Method for more advanced work.—

1. Fold in the selvedge edges.
2. Fold the band in two lengthwise, wrong side out.

Run or stitch together the ends, cut away a little material at the Folded corners, as shown  by line ab in fig. 2, and turn the band smoothly over, pressing out the seams.

Pleating

1. Pleating is a simple way of disposing of a large amount of  fullness. A piece of material can be pleated into a band one-third its own length.
2. Pleats must be folded in regularly, usually in opposite directions, on either side of a middle line.

be half the amount of extra fullness divided by the number of pleats. E.g. if there is 6 in. of extra material, and four pleats are to be made, each pleat will measure (6 in. -r 2) -;- 4, i.e. I in.

1. Pin up the pleats, test the width, and rearrange where necessary.
2. Having arranged one half of the work successfully, make the other half match.
3. Tack the pleats near the raw edge, and again farther down (fig. 3).
4. Arrange the pleats evenly in the band, and pin them in. Tack down the band, right side only.

9. Sew the band on the right side by hemming or some decorative stitch.
10. Make sure that the pleats are evenly and securely fixed, then tack and hem down the wrong side of the band (fig. 4).

Gathering, Stroking, and Setting In

Gathering is used for disposing of fullness in a garment if it is not much more than twice the required width. This method allows easier ironing of the fullness, and has a daintier appearance than pleating, especially on fine materials.

A. Gathering.—

1. Gather the weft way on the right side of single material at an even distance from the edge. Occasionally gathering must be done on double material.

1. Leave a short space plain near hems, seams, &c.
2. Divide the length to be gathered into con­ venient sections before beginning. Mark the sections with contrasting thread.
3. Mark the plain part of the garment to correspond.

B. Stroking.—

1. Stroking means forming tiny pleats between the left thumb and the stroking-needle (fig. 5).

1. Draw up the gathers gradually, beginning at the right-hand end, with the right thumb and forefinger pressed against the gathering-thread.
   This regulates the gathers.
2. Set in a pin exactly at the end of the gathering-thread, taking a very small hold of the cloth. Wind the gathering-thread round
   it several times (fig. 5).
3. Each gather must be stroked with a large strong needle about § in. down from the gather­ ing-thread, and the pleat well pressed in.

5. If the material cannot be stroked, a double line of gathering will regulate the fullness better than a single line.

Note.—This is rather a difficult exercise for children. A good preliminary exercise is to fold small pleats (always becoming finer) on paper with the aid of a knitting-needle or darner. There would, of course, be no gathering-thread, but pleats are easily creased in on paper. The pupil learns how to handle the stroking-needle, for if it is not correctly held the paper is torn. Cloth often suffers damage from the same cause, but children do not so readily discover and correct their fault, as cloth has more resistance.

C. Setting In.—

1. Setting in is done on the right side first.
2. Loosen the gathers until they fit the plain part of the garment, arrange them according to the sections already marked off, and fix them to the plain part of the garment by means of pins or upright tacking stitches (fig. 6).

Tacking allows less freedom than pins in spacing out the gathers evenly.

1. The edge of the band must just rest on the gathering-thread.
2. Every gather must be lifted and set inseparately (fig. 7).

5. The wrong side should be treated exactly like the right side, care being taken to prevent puckering the band, which is usually the result either of insufficient pinning or tacking, or of folding the work too tightly round the forefinger of the left hand.

Tucking

1. Tucks are pleats which are sewn down along part or the whole of their length. They may be made either selvedge way or weft way to reduce the width or length of a garment, or  merely for ornament. As ornament, they may be arranged in groups or evenly spaced, and may be of the same or of varying widths.
2. Calculate the amount of material to be dis­posed of, as in pleating, and plan out the best arrangement of tucks.

The calculation is made just as for pleating. For example, if 4 in. of fullness has to be dis­posed of, and J-in. tucks are wanted, eight tucks may be made. The space between may be the same as, or less than, the width of the tuck. Having marked the edge of the first tuck, the calculation for the other tucks might be as follows: from edge of tuck allow \ in. for depth of tuck, \ in. for tuck to lie on, \ in. for space between, \ in. for depth of second tuck. From tuck edge to tuck edge would therefore measure £ in. (fig. 8).

1. Lift the tucks very evenly; if in the selvedge direction, then fold along a thread. Tack the whole length of the tuck.
2. Lift and tack all the tucks on any section of a garment, and test the correctness of width or length before sewing any of them.
3. Run or machine stitch the tucks, working the running on the under side to avoid having to turn the work at every join. If tucks are
   lifted with a view to letting down the garment at a later stage, running is better than machine stitching.
4. Press out the tucks flatly after finishing the sewing.

Whipping

1. Very fine materials and muslin frills are often whipped instead of being gathered.
2. Longpieces of work should be divided into sections as in gathering.
3. The edge of the material must be cut very clean, and rolled (not folded) down to the wrong side between the thumb and forefinger of the
   left hand.
4. Having fixed the thread securely at the beginning, roll a little bit of the material firmly, and bring the needle through the single material from the right side to the wrong, just beneath the roll (fig. 9).

If the whipping-stitch is worked too closely, the roll will not gather up well.

5. From time to time gather up the material upon the whipping-thread.

1. When the whole of the material is gathered up, it is regulated, pinned, and top-sewn to the plain part of the garment—each little twist of the roll being fixed by one top-sewing stitch; only the tip of the roll must be lifted. Hold the frill towards the worker in order to have the whipping-thread at left hand, convenient for regulation of the fullness (fig. 10).
2. The whipping-thread must be securely finished off, and, if joins are necessary in the top-sewing, they must be very securely made.

Note. — This is work only for quite advanced pupils. Show that successful work requires a certain proportion between the length of the whipping-stitch and the thick­ness of the roll. A thick roll requires a large stitch, but a fine, tight roll, whipped with a short stitch, looks prettier and fuller.

A long stitch is easier to gather up, but is apt to produce puckering when the top-sewing is done, the space between the stitches being too long.
Whipping is often used on a garment made of very fine or transparent material, even where there is no fullness, if a piece of lace or insertion has to be attached directly to the edge of the garment. It is a useful way also of joining a fine trimming to a durable garment, as the trimming can be very easily taken off and renewed.

Smocking

1. Smocking is a very decorative way of re­ducing the fullness of a garment when it is abundant. It differs from gathering and setting
   in in much the same way that tucking differs from pleating.

Rows of gathering are worked with great regularity over the desired space. If there is a large piece of work to be done, it is best to mark the cloth with lines of dots. This may be done with a ruler and a pencil, or by means of a transfer paper. The spacing of the dots will vary according to the amount of material to be  gathered in, more dots being required if the full ness is scanty.

1. The gathering-thread having been fixed at the end of a row of dots,  each dot is lifted on a small stitch (fig. 11). When all the rows have
   been worked, pins are inserted, and the gathering- threads drawn up and  ound round the pins. Or pairs of gathering-threads may be tied together.
2. Various patterns may now be worked with embroidery thread on the surface of the gathers or flutes. Stem stitch (with variations) may be (D106) worked in straight or wavy lines across the material, each flute being lifted in turn (fig. 12).

Other stitches, e.g. feather stitch and herring­bone, may be used in the same way. 5. Honeycomb pattern is worked differently.

The thread being made secure on the wrong side of the work (left-hand  side), the first two pleats are taken together by two stitches, then the needle is slipped down the 2nd flute to a lower  level, where the 2nd and 3rd flutes are taken together, then upwards along the 3rd flute, and the 3rd and 4th flutes are taken together, and so on (fig. 13). This pattern works well into points or Vandykes. The spacing for honeycomb re­quires some preliminary experiment, as it does not show to good effect if it is either too close or too open.

1. When all the work is finished, the gather­ing-threads must  be carefully removed. The work may be freshened by holding it over a hot iron, but it must not be pressed.
2. Smocking is most suitable for garments which do not require to be washed and ironed.

Darts

1. Darts are the flattest method of re­ducing full­ ness.
2. On wrong side of work, lift pleats at right angles to the edge, and let them taper to a point several inches down (fig. 14). 3. Pin up all the darts required, and test the width and the general appearance. If the garment appears to slope in too rapidly, make more but smaller, and perhaps longer, darts.
3. Run or machine stitch all the darts. Press out the seams.

If the pleat is narrow, the material may be folded down to one side, and hemmed or machine stitched (fig. 15). If it is wide, part of the spare material should be cut away, and the remainder folded in like a run-and-fell seam, and then hemmed or stitched (fig. 16).

FASTENINGS

Tape Strings

Tape strings are the simplest fastening for children to sew on their garments. They also allow of more variation in the width of a garment than other fastenings. They are the most com­mon fastening for pillow-cases. The method of sewing on has already been described.

 Buttons

1. Buttons are required in connection with loops or buttonholes. They are made of many materials, and may be pierced or unpierced. A pierced button is easier to sew on, but for under­clothing an un­pierced linen button is more suitable. For other purposes, buttons are usually chosen according to their decorative qualities.

1. Decide the position of the button (well within the edge of the  material) and fix the thread by means of some back stitches.
2. Make a sufficient number of stitches (at least six or eight) through the holes of the button, not too tightly (fig. 1).

In using unpierced linen buttons, the worker should first prick holes with the needle point, to guide the stitches into the desired pattern.

The stitched circle is a little difficult to sew, but is a strong method, the stitches being well spread over the but­ton. It should occupy not more than half the width of a very small button, or one-third of a larger one, else the loop or buttonhole will notlie smoothly and securely under the button (fig. 2 a).

Another good method is to form one or two bars across the button, and overcast them with blanket stitch. The bars should lie parallel with the buttonholes (fig. 2b).
4 Bring the needle through between the button andthe cloth, and wind the thread round the sewing several times. This stemming forms a neck, and protects the sewing (fig. 3).

1. Pass the needle to the wrong side of the garment, and end off firmly, close to the sewing of the button.
2. Buttons should always be sewn on double material. If it is  necessary to sew them where the material is single, a piece of material or of tape should be hemmed on to the wrong side first.

 Making Buttons

Buttons to match a garment may be made by covering button   moulds with material.

1. Cut circles of material with a diameter twice that of the button mould.
2. Whip the raw edges of the circle of material (fig. 4), slip in the mould, tighten the stitches, andfinish off firmly andas neatly as possible on the under side of the button.

3. Large buttons may be finished on the under side with a small piece of material hemmed on to cover the raw edges, and a loop, blanket stitched, may be added by which to sew the button on the garment.
4. If preferred, scraps of material may replace the button moulds, a soft button of this kind being particularly suitable for washing dresses or blouses.

5. Soft buttons may be covered with small pieces of crochet in­
stead of circles of material.
6. Buttons are often covered with material of a color contrast­
ing with the rest of the dress. If the ma­terial is of the same
color as the dress, the buttons may be lightly embroidered in contrasting colors.

Making a Loop

A. For a Button.—
1. The loop is usually placed at the edge of the garment (fig. 5).
2. Run inthe end of the thread, and fix with a back stitch at the edge (fig. 6).
3. Make a number of strands of perfectly equal length (4, 6, or 8, according to the thick-thread may be used at first. A pencil may be slipped into the loop to hold it in position while it is being made, and to keep all the strands of the same length.

Buttonholes

Buttonholes and buttons are, generally speak­ing, the most convenient kind of fastening, especially on underclothing. They may add something to the beauty of the finished work, they wash well, and they are easily manipulated. ness of the thread) catching into the edge of the cloth. Fix with a back stitch.

1. The distance between the ends of the loop should be less than the diameter of the button. Test the size of the loop after making the first two strands.
2. Overcast the strands with blanket stitches, closely placed, especially at the ends (fig. 6 a).

6. Run the thread into the material and cut off. B. For a Hook.—

This loop is made similarly, only it is usually placed at a distance from the edge (fig. 6 b). The needle is passed from end to end of the loop in forming the strands, so that a loop is formed on each side of the material. Both loops should be overcast to prevent the loop being dragged out of position.

Note. —A loop is a fairly easy fastening for children to make, if they use thread which is not too fine. Embroidery-

A. A rrangement of Buttonholes on a Garment.— 1. Buttonholes should be placed in line with  the direction of the strain of fastening, and there­fore are usually placed horizontally on bands or on fairly close-fitting garments (fig. 7).

1. They are placed vertically on front pleats of shirts, blouses, nightgowns, &c, where their vertical position improves the appearance of the work. These garments are usually wide enough to cause no strain in fastening (fig. 7).
2. Occasionally a vertical buttonhole is neces­sary for a secure fastening, e.g. at a shoulder fastening.
3. The method of finishing the ends of a buttonhole depends on its position. The round end tends to allow the buttonhole to open up to
   receive the button, the square end keeps it close.
4. One round and one square end are required for a buttonhole to be fastened tightly, the round end to be placed next the button.
5. Two similar ends (preferably square) are best for the vertical buttonholes on front pleats.
6. Two round ends are good for a hole made on single material to pass a tape through.

B. Cutting a Buttonhole.—

1. Place a button on the hem or band to indicate the position of the buttonhole. Allow plenty of room between the button and the edge of the cloth.
2. Pass a pin through the cloth at either side of the button to mark the diameter, allowing a ittle, if necessary, for the thickness of the button.
   A line from pin to pin indicates the buttonhole.
3. Cut a slit with a small pair of scissors with sharp-pointed blades.

C. Sewing a Buttonhole.— 1. To fix the thread firmly at the beginning, a knot may be made on the thread, and the needle slipped a little way between the folds towards the end of the buttonhole farther from the edge of the cloth (fig. 8).

2. Work buttonhole stitches closely and evenly, drawing each stitch very firm and per­fectly upright.
3. Make a semicircle of stitches at the end of the buttonhole nearest the button, putting in an odd number of stitches (fig. 9). If these stitches are knotted, five will be sufficient; if they are plainly overcast, any number up to nine may be worked. The middle stitch of the semicircle will be in line with the slit.

1. Work the second side of the buttonhole like the first, and finish by catching together the first knot made on the first side and the last knot
   on the second side.

Slip the needle to the end of the last stitch, and work buttonhole stitches to cover the line of the first and last stitches, the same number of stitches as in the round end, or at least an equal number on either side of a middle stitch placed in line with the buttonhole (fig. 10).

1. Finish the thread on the wrong side with a few small stitches, cut off the knot made at the beginning, and let the thread slip out of sight. D.

Buttonholes on Cross-may Material.— It is difficult to work buttonholes on the cross-way of material without stretching the material and spoiling the buttonhole. The result is more successful when the buttonholes are quickly worked.

It is of great assistance to slip in a straight piece in making the garment where buttonholes are likely to occur at a crossway edge. For example, at the edge of a saddle yoke, when the yoke is being joined to its lining by a stitching on the wrong side, a straight piece placed along the crossway edge may be stitched in with the other two folds.

If no such precaution has been taken, the position of the buttonhole should be marked, and a line of running or machine stitching carried round quite close to the buttonhole just before the slit is cut. The buttonhole stitches cover these preliminary stitches.

E. Binding Buttonholes.—

Buttonholes on blouses or dresses are often bound with material, either similar or contrast­ing, if the material is very thick or very thin and apt to fray out, or merely in order to give variety to the garment. Binding is used in the same way on long slits made on a garment to allow a band to pass through.

1. Cut a piece of material about 2 in. wide and 2 in. longer than the buttonhole.
2. Mark the position of the buttonhole by a line of tacking.
3. Place the strip of material evenly over the buttonhole on the right side, and tack it in place.

Run, stitch, or machine stitch not more than \ in. from the buttonhole. On thick material this stitching may form a rectangle (fig. u£); but on thinner stuff the shape is usually oval, the stitching coming quite close to the ends of the buttonhole (fig. 11a).

7. Fold in the raw edges of the binding neatly, folding smoothly any fullness at the ends. Hem down on the wrong side, unless there is a lining on the wrong side which may be left free in attaching the binding, and then used to neaten the wrong side of the buttonhole.
8. A line of stitching is sometimes worked close to the buttonhole edge.

Notes.—To make a button­hole well is a difficult exercise for a schoolgirl, and requires a good deal of practice.

1. Make sure that the stitch itself is perfectly familiar before buttonholes are attempted. Buttonhole stitch can be used to beautify the edges of many small articles.
2. A badly-cut buttonhole cannot possibly be well sewn, and a girl may well cut half a dozen or more slits on folded scraps of material before trying to sew one of them.

General practice in cutting helps greatly here.
(3) The arrangement of the stitches in a buttonhole is quite mathematical, and may be planned out first on squared paper, so that the placing of the stitches at the round and square ends may be clearly understood. The first practice on cloth may be made on coarse material (which must not, however, fray out too readily).

Sewing on Hooks, Eyes, and Dome Fasteners

1. Sew these on by means of buttonhole stitches, filling each hole or ring with stitches.

Place the stitches closely, but not one on the top of the other.

2. On passing from one hole to another, slip the needle between the folds of the cloth (fig. 14).
3. Buttonhole stitch up the shank of a hook (fig. 15 a).
4. In sewing on an eye, make several stitches round the eye just above the rings (fig- 15b)-
5. Place the flatter portion of a fastener on the upper side of articles which require washing and ironing.

OPENINGS IN GARMENTS

An opening or placket usually consists of a slit cut in the material, which must be strengthened and neatened. It is intended to allow a garment to be put on and taken off easily, so its length depends on the width of the corresponding part of the garment. In order to avoid danger of tearing, a neck opening usually reaches to the waist, and a waist opening to at least J of the length of the skirt. But if the neck or waist lines are already wide, less may be cut down at the opening. A very wide-necked garment, if loose-fitting, e.g. a child's pinafore, may be slipped over the head without any further opening at all. There are many ways of finishing openings, according to the width of material to be used up, or the appearance desired. If hems are made on the actual material of the garment, a good deal of material is used up; so, in a narrow garment, false hems or double folds must be added. A back opening is usually intended to be neat but unobtrusive, while a front opening often adds to the decoration of the garment.

General Directions for finishing Openings

1. Cut the opening in a straight line, and snip across the bottom of it at right angles, so as to orm turnings for hems or
 false hems (fig. 1).

1. and sew the Arrange hems or false hems on either
   side.
2. At the bottom of the opening, cut across as much as necessary to allow the two sides to overlap each other. Cut as little as possible, and cut on the under side of the opening.
3. Stitch across the bot­ tom of the opening strongly to prevent tearing. Two rows of stitching, or an oblong of machine stitching, will be necessary.
4. Neaten any raw edges on the wrong side by a piece of narrow  ape, unless the ends of false hems can be turned in to cover the raw edges.
5. False hems should always be cut a little longer than the slit or opening.

7. In men's and boys' clothes, the opening fastens left side over right, in women's and girls', right over left. Sleeve openings should fall downwards.

So long as the opening is made thoroughly neat and strong, the precise method of arranging it remains a matter of taste. A few typical methods are described.
A. Opening with Sloping Hems and Strength­ening Tape.—

The method of working this has already been described in the chapter on the use of tape. It is a simple method, but the opening does not fold over, and therefore should be fastened by loops and buttons rather than by buttonholes.

B. Opening with Strengthening Strip of Ma­terial.—

1. Mark the opening, but do not cut it.
2. Baste a piece of material over the opening, on right or wrong side according to taste. Stitch down both sides of the opening, tapering to a point at the bottom.
3. Cut the opening through both pieces of material (fig. 2); turn the strip over to the other side of the garment, smoothing out the seam.
   Fold in the raw edges.
4. Tack, and stitch or hem neatly along the sides and bottom of the strip (fig. 3).
5. This can be very effectively used for a front opening, but, as it does not overlap, it may be necessary to join on the wrong side an extra flap of material to extend behind the slit.

 C. Simple Opening for Flannel.—

1. Fold on the upper side a straight hem, and herring-bone.
2. Fold a sloping hem on the under side, not more than half the width of the straight hem, and tapering to a point. Herring-bone.

3. Fold the one hem over the other; stitch together at the bottom (fig. 4).

N.B.—No snipping across is required, as only single folds are laid.

D. Opening with Simple Hems.—

1. Fold and stitch equal hems on either side of the opening.
2. Cut across the wrong side of the under hem, and fold the one hem over the other.

3. Stitch across (fig. 5), and neaten the raw edges with tape (fig. 6).

Note.—On coloured material, if it is desirable to avoid the use of tape, the under hem may be turned to the right side. The raw edges will then be enclosed between the two hems.

 E. Opening -with False Hems. —

1. Join a false hem to each side of the opening.
2. Flatten the seams, turn over the hems, and sew down as far as the bottom of the opening.
3. Cut across a little on the left-hand side (fig. 7), lay the one hem evenly over the other, and tack in place.

Wrong side.

4. Cut the upper false hem to the proper length, fold up the end of the under false hem to cover the raw edges, and stitch across the bottom so as to hold in all the folds (fig. 8).

Note.—If preferred, the upper false hem may be turned on to the right side as a decorative pleat. In that case it will have to extend below the end of the other hem so as to hide all finishings. If stitching across at the bottom spoils the appearance, top-sew the hems together so as not to show on the right side (fig. 9). The wrong side will be neatened by hemming down the end of the false hem

F. Opening with a False Hem and a Double Extending Piece.—

1. Join a false hem o the upper side, and sew it down as far as the bottom of the opening.
2. On the other side, join a wider piece, which is folded back upon itself, forming a double fold which extends tinder the false hem. This piece when finished should be of the same width as the false hem (fig. 10). If each piece is to be i in. wide when finished, the false hem would be cut i in. + two turn­ings wide, and the double fold 2 in. + two turnings.
3. There will be a tiny raw-edged piece, owing to the snipping across at the bot­tom of the opening to let the false hem and double fold lie flatly (fig. 10). This raw-edged piece must be folded in be­tween the two false pieces, and their lower edges must be folded up to an equal depth in both cases.
4. Stitch across now so as to catch in all the folds and enclose all raw edges (fig. 11).
5. If this opening is meant to appear in the middle of the front or back of a garment, it must be cut, not in the middle, but about half the width of the hem towards the under side.
6. The opening of a dress skirt is finished by this method, but is managed so as to show less stitching on the right side.

Note.—(1) If the little fold at the bottom of the opening is objectionable, the false hem on the upper side should be allowed to project a little beyond the edge, but in this case it must appear finally as a decorative pleat on the right side (fig. 12). In this case the double fold is often made narrower than the upper pleat, but, in any case, the middle of the one should lie upon the middle of the other.

The false hem or facing is stitched close to the edge of the skirt, its other edge being left free (fig. 13).

The double fold is treated in the usual way, unless it has a selvedge edge, when it is folded back upon itself without the edge being turned in.

At the bottom of the opening the garment is not stitched through, but only the facings. If they cannot be stitched, they must be top-sewn together (fig. 13).

All raw edges must be overcast or bound.

G. Opening finished with one Continuous Double Fold.—
1. Cut the opening, and make a very tiny snip across the bottom at each side.

4. Fold it back upon itself and stitch or hem down on the previous stitching (fig. 14).

1. Cuta piece fully double the length of the opening.
2. Attach it to the opening, first down one edge, then up theother.

5. The fold is turned back under the upper edge of the opening, and extends forward from the under edge.

The method employed in attaching trimming to a garment depends on the nature of the trimming, and its probable durability as com­pared with the garment.

Lace is usually top-sewn to the edge of a gar­ment after all the rest of the work is completed. This makes it easy to pick off the lace when it becomes torn, and sew on a fresh piece, without disturbing the rest of the work.

When the lace is to be set on full, it is best to gather it first. Whipping stitch is better than gathering stitch for this purpose. Crochet and knitted laces are usually sewn on plain.

Lace insertions or motifs should be secured in an equally light fashion, since they can rarely be expected to outlast the garment. Where there is a reasonable chance that the motif will be durable, it should be closely blanket stitched to the right side. The material is then cut away on the wrong side, leaving a small turning to be folded back and hemmed down lightly.

Swiss embroidery edgings and insertions, if worked on good long cloth, are very durable, and may be sewn on in a more permanent fashion than lace. Embroidery worked on muslin should  only be used with muslin or very fine materials, and the lightest way to attach it is by rolling the edge, and whipping and top-sewing it.

A good method of attaching a long cloth em­broidery insertion or edging without fullness is to turn in a single fold on the right side of the plain border, turn in on the garment a corre­sponding fold on the wrong side, and place the two together as a counter-hem seam, which may be machine-stitched twice, or feather - stitched so as to fill this narrow seam with stitchery.

When long cloth embroidery is to be put on full, it may be gathered, stroked, and set in between the folds of the plain portion of the garment.

When the garment is single, or when the gathers are being set into an embroidery inser­tion, the cloth, or the long cloth border of the insertion, should be turned up to the wrong side, making a deep fold. When the gathered material has been set into this folded edge, the same fold of material should be turned down over the gathers on the wrong side, thus forming a neat binding.

Sometimes the gathers are not suitable for setting in by hand. The neatest plan then is to place the gathered edge to the raw edge of the garment, right sides together, and place also with them the raw edge of a strip of material for binding, either straight or on the cross, as may be necessary. The three edges are all run or machine stitched together on the wrong side, then the binding is folded up and attached to the garment in some suitable way.

If a beading or insertion is used instead of the binding, then only the gathered edge and the edge of the garment should be stitched together, with right sides out. The seam being smoothed out, the beading is placed in position on the right side and machine stitched or otherwise attached to cover all raw edges.

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